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Table 1 An overview of repellent plant efficacy from literature review

From: Plant-based insect repellents: a review of their efficacy, development and testing

Plant

Location

Other names

Repellent compound(s)

Tested mode of use

Repellency % protection

Study type

Ref

MYRTACEAE

       

Corymbia citriodora

Australia

Brazil

Bolivia

China

India

Ethiopia

Tanzania

Kenya

lemon eucalyptus

lemon scented gum

quwenling

citronellal

PMD (by product of

hidrodistillation)

(p-menthane-3,8-diol)

citronellol

limonene

geraniol

isopulegol

δ-pinene

30% PMD applied topically

96.88% protection from mosquitoes for 4 hours

field study in Bolivia

[45]

PMD towelette (0.575g) applied topically

90% protection from An. arabiensis for 6 hours

laboratory study

[112]

50% PMD applied topically

100% protection from An gambiae and An. funestus for 6-7 hours

field study in Tanzania

[113]

20% PMD (1.7 mg/cm2) applied topically

100% protection for 11-12 hours against A. stephensi

laboratory study

[64]

20% PMD applied topically

100% protection against Ae. Aegypti for 120 minutes

Laboratory study

[52]

thermal expulsion (leaves)

78.7 % protection from An. arabiensis

76.8% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

direct burning (leaves)

70.1 % protection from An. arabiensis

72.9% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves)

74.5% protection from An. gambiae s.s.

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

periodic direct burning (leaves)

51.3% protection from An. gambiae s.s.

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

thermal expulsion (leaves)

48.71% protection from An. gambiae s.l.

field study in Kenya

[115]

Eucalyptus spp.

Guinea-Bissau

Ethiopia

Tanzania

Portugal

eucalyptus

1,8-cineole

citronellal

Z- and α- citral

α-pinene

thermal expulsion (leaves)

72.2% protection from mosquitoes for 2 hours

field study in Guinea Bissau

[116]

E. camaldulensis

Ethiopia

  

thermal expulsion (leaves)

71.9 % protection from An. arabiensis

72.2% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

   

direct burning (leaves)

65.3 % protection from An. arabiensis

66.6% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

Eugenia caryophyllus or Syzygium aromaticum or Eugenia aromaticu

India

clove

lavang

cravinho-da-india

Eugenol

carvacrol

thymol

cinnamaldehyde

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 225 minutes

100% protection against An. albimanus for 213 minutes

laboratory study

[65]

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min.

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 240 min.

100% protection against An. dirus for 210 min.

laboratory study

[31]

VERBENACEAE

       

Lippia spp.

Kenya

Tanzania

Ghana

Zimbabwe

lemon bush

myrcene

linalool

α-pinene

eucalyptol

    

L. javanica

  

alloparinol

camphor

limonene

α –terpeneol

verbenone

5mg/cm2 plant extract applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 8 hours

laboratory study

[117]

alcohol plant extract applied topically

76.7% protection against An arabiensis for 4 hours

laboratory study

[118]

L. uckambensis

 

fever tea

 

potted plant

33.3% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[119]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves)

45.9% protection against An. gambiae s.s.

semi-field system in Kenya

[62]

periodic direct burning (leaves)

33.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field system in Kenya

[62]

potted plant

25.01% protection against An.gambiae s.l

field study in Kenya

[115]

L. cheraliera

  

eucalyptol

caryophyllene

ipsdienone

p-cymene

    

Lantana camara

Kenya

Tanzania

lantana

spanish flag

West Indian

lantana

Wild sage

caryophylene

potted plant

32.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[119]

potted plant

27.22% protection against An. gambiae s.l.

field study in Kenya

[115]

flower extract in coconut oil

94.5% protection against Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus for one hour

laboratory study

[120]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves)

42.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

LAMIACEAE

       

Ocimum spp. O.americanum

Kenya

Tanzania

Zimbabwe

Nigeria

Ghana

Cameroon

Eritrea

Ethiopia (…)

Tree basil

nchu avum

lime basil

kivumbasi

Myeni madongo

African blue basil

hairy basil

p-cymene

estragosl

linalool

linoleic acid

eucalyptol

eugenol

camphor

citral

thujone

limonene

ocimene

and others

potted plant

39.70% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[119]

potted plant

37.91% protection against An. gambiae s.l.

field study in Kenya

[115]

fresh plants combined with O. suave bruised and applied topically

50% protection against An. gambiae s.l.

field study in Tanzania

[121]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds)

43.1.% protection against An gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

periodic direct burning (leaves and seeds)

20.9% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 6.5 hours1

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 8 hours

100% protection against An. dirus for 8 hours

laboratory study

[34]

O. suave

   

thermal expulsion (leaves)

73.6 % protection from An. arabiensis

75.1% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

direct burning (leaves)

71.5 % protection from An. arabiensis

79.7% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds)

53.1% protection from An. gambiae s.s.

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

periodic direct burning (leaves and seeds)

28.0% protection from An. gambiae s.s.

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

O. basilicum

   

thermal expulsion (leaves)

78.7 % protection from An. arabiensis

79.2% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

direct burning (leaves)

73.1 % protection from An. arabiensis

70.0% protection from An. pharaoensis

field study in Ethiopia

[114]

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection for 70 minutes

laboratory study

[31]

O. kilimandscharikum

   

thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds)

44.54% protection against An. gambiae s.l.

field study in Kenya

[115]

thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds)

37.63% protection against An. funestus

field study in Kenya

[115]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds)

52.0% protection against An. gambiae s.s.

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

periodic direct burning (leaves and seeds)

26.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

O. forskolei

   

fresh plants hung indoors

53% protection against mosquitoes entering human dwelling

field study in Eritrea

[122]

Hyptis spp. Hyptis suaveolens

Kenya

Tanzania

Ghana

The Gambiae

bushmint

wild hops

wild spikenard

hangazimu

hortelã-do-campo

myrcene

smouldering on charcoal

85.4% repellency against mosquitoes for 2 hours

field study in Guinea Bissau

[116]

fresh leaves

73.2% repellency against mosquitoes for 2 hours

field study in Guinea Bissau

[116]

periodic direct burning (leaves and flowers)

20.8% repellency against An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

Mentha spp. M. piperata

Brazil

Bolivia

hortelã-do-campo

peppermint

 

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 45 minutes

laboratory study

[65]

M. arvensis

 

menta

Japanese mint

 

100% essential oil volatilized in a kerosene lamp

41% protection indoors against Mansonia spp

field study in Bolivia

[17]

Thymus spp. Th. vulgaris

China

Former Soviet

Union

Korea

Middle-East

Mediterranean

thyme

α-terpinene

carvacrol

thymol

p-cymene

linalool

geraniol

α-terpinene topically

97.3% protection against Culex pipiens sallens for 82 min

laboratory study

[123]

carvacrol topically

94.7% protection against C. pipiens sallens for 80 min

  

thymol topically

91.8% protection against C. pipiens sallens for 70 min

laboratory study

[123]

linalool topically

91.7% protection agains C. pipiens sallens for 65 min

  

p-cymene

89.0% protection agains C. pipiens sallens for 45.2 min

  

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection against An. albimanus for 105 minutes and Ae. aegypti for 135 minutes

laboratory study

[65]

direct burning (leaves)

85-09% protection for 60-90 min

field study

[20]

Pogostemon spp.

China

Patchouli

 

100% essential oil applied

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min

laboratory study

[31]

Pogostemon cablin

India

Malaysia

Thailand

Oriza

 

topically

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 150 min

100% protection against An. dirus for 710 minutes

  

POACEAE

       

Cymbopogon spp.

China

India

Indonesia

      

C. nardus

Brazil

 

citronellal

40% essential oil applied topically

100% protection for 7-8 hours against An. stephensi

laboratory study

[64]

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 100 min

100% protection against An. dirus for 70 minutes

laboratory study

[31]

10% applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 20 minutes

laboratory study

[52]

C. martini

Tanzania

Kenya

palmarosa

geraniol

topically

(100% essential oil)

100% protection against An. culicifacies for 12 hours

96.3% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 12 hours

field study in India

[124]

topically

(100% essential oil)

98.8% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 10 hours

laboratory study

[124]

C. citratus

USA

South África Bolívia

lemongrass oil grass

citral α-pinene

topically

74% protection against An. darlingi for 2.5h

95% protection against Mansonia spp. for 2.5 hours

field study in Bolivia

[17]

Methanol leaf extract applied topically (2.5mg/m2)

78.8 % protection against An. arabiensis for 12 hours

laboratory study

[125]

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection for 30 minutes

laboratory study

[31]

C. winterianius

   

100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 6.5 hours

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 8 hours

100% protection against An. dirus for 8 hours

laboratory study

[34]

C. excavatus

   

alcohol plant extract applied topically

66.7% protection against An. arabiensis for 3 hours

laboratory study

[118]

Pelargonium reniforme

 

rose geranium

 

alcohol plant extract applied topically

63.3 protection against An. arabiensis for 3 hours

laboratory study

[118]

MELIACEAE

       

Azadirachta indica

India

Sri Lanka

China

Brazil Bolívia

Pakistan

Ethiopia

Guinea Bissau

Kenya

Tanzania (…)

Neem

azadirachtin

saponins

direct burning (leaves)

76.0% protection from mosquitoes for 2 hours

field study in Guinea Bissau

[116]

periodic thermal expulsion (leaves)

24.5% protection from An. gambiae s.s

semi-field study in Kenya

[62]

1% neem oil volatilized in a kerosene lamp

94.2% protection from Anopheles spp.

80% protection from Culex spp.

field study in India

[126]

2% neem oil applied topically

56.75% protection from mosquitoes for 4 hours

field study in Bolivia

[45]

ASTERACEAE

       

Tagetes minuta

Uganda

Zimbabwe

India

Khaki weed

 

topically

86.4% protection againt An. stepehensi for 6 hours

laboratory study

[127]

topically

84.2% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 6 hours

laboratory study

[127]

topically

75% protection against Ae. aegypti for 6 hours

laboratory study

[127]

fresh leaves (4Kg)

reduced human landings indoors

field study in Uganda

[128]

Artemisia spp.

A. vulgaris

India

Egypt

Italy

Canada

USA

mugwort

wormwood

St. Johns plant

Old uncle henry

Sailors tobacco

camphor

linalool terpenen-4-ol

α-and β-thujone

β-pinene

    

A. monosperma

Siberia Brazil

Felon herb

Naughty man

myrcene

limonene

cineol

5% leave extract applied topically

100 % protection for 4 hours

field study in Egypt

112

CAESALPINIACEAE

       

Daniellia oliveri

Guinea-Bissau

The Gambiae

churai

santão

santang

santango

 

direct burning (bark)

77.9% protection against mosquitoes for 2 hours

field study in Guinea Bissau

[116]

direct burning (bark)

77% protection against mosquitoes

field study in The Gambiae

[130]

FABACEAE

Glycine max

Worldwide

Soya

 

2% soya bean oil

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 95 minutes

laboratoty study

[52]

RUTACEAE

Zanthoxylum limonella

Thailand

makaen

 

100% essential oil applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 170 min

laboratory study

[31]

10% essential oil combined with 10% clove oil

100% protection against An. dirus for 190 minutes

laboratory study

[64]

Citrus hystrix

Indonesia

Malaysia

Thailand

Laos

Kaffir lime

Limau purut

 

100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically

100% protection against An. stephensi for 8 hours

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 3 hours

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 1.5 hours

100% protection against An. dirus for 2.5 hours

laboratory study

[34]

ZINGIBERACEAE

Curcuma longa

 

Turmeric

Curcuma

Indian saffron

 

100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically

100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 4.5 hours

100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 8 hours

100% protection against An. dirus for 8 hours

laboratory study

[34]