Table 1 Summary of reports investigating EVs in malaria infection
From: The role of extracellular vesicles in malaria biology and pathogenesis
Vesicle type | Vesicle size | Vesicle isolation method | Cell origin | Study type | Species | Key findings | Report |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Host-derived vesicles | |||||||
 MV | NA | Supernatant from 13,000×g centrifugation | Endothelial | Human field study | P. falciparum | MVs present in infected individuals. | [33] |
 MV | NA | Supernatant from 13,000×g centrifugation | Endothelial, platelet, erythrocyte | Human field study | P. falciparum | MVs in infected individuals are associated with severe malaria and TNF levels. | [38] |
 MV | NA | Pellet from 100,000×g centrifugation | Endothelial, platelet, erythrocyte | Human field study | P. falciparum | MVs in infected individuals are associated with severe malaria and ACBA1 gene polymorphisms. | [36] |
 MV | NA | Supernatant from 13,000×g centrifugation | Endothelial, platelet, leukocyte, erythrocyte | Human field study | P. falciparum | MVs in infected individuals are associated with cerebral malaria only. | [37] |
 MV | NA | Pellet from 20,800×g centrifugation | Platelet | In vitro | P. falciparum | Platelet MVs are involved in iRBC cytoadhesion. | [40] |
 MV | NA | Pellet from 14,000×g centrifugation | Platelet, leukocyte, erythrocyte | Human field study | P. vivax | MVs in infected individuals are associated with malaria disease severity. | [42] |
 MV | NA | Supernatant from 13,000×g centrifugation or pellet from 20,000×g centrifugation | Endothelial, platelet, monocyte | In vivo | P. berghei ANKA | MVs involved in cerebral malaria. | [34] |
 MV | NA | Pellet from 18,000×g centrifugation | Endothelial, platelet, erythrocyte | In vivo and in vitro | P. berghei | MVs localize to brain during infection, and can directly induce pathology. | [41] |
 MV | 100–1000 nm | Pellet from 18,000×g centrifugation | NA | In vivo | P. berghei ANKA | Proteomic characterization of MVs in cerebral malaria. | [4] |
Parasite-derived vesicles | |||||||
 MV | NA | 13,000×g centrifugation | iRBC | Human field study and in vitro | P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae | MVs released from iRBC during active infection. | [48] |
 MV | 100–400 nm | 100,000×g centrifugation on sucrose cushion | iRBC | In vitro | P. falciparum | MVs released from iRBC contain parasite protein and RNA, are immunostimulatory, and induce gametocytogenesis. | [49] |
 NA | NA | 100,000×g centrifugation on sucrose cushion | iRBC | In vitro | P. falciparum | EVs from iRBC contain functional microRNA that are endocytosed by human endothelial cells and affect barrier properties. | [51] |
 Exo | 70–120 nm | 100,000×g centrifugation on Optiprep gradient | iRBC | In vitro | P. falciparum | Exosomes used for intra-parasitic communication, and induce gametocytogenesis. | [50] |
 MV | 150–250 nm | Pellet from 14,000×g centrifugation | iRBC | In vivo | P. berghei ANKA | MVs from parasites are pro-inflammatory and stimulate TLR pathways. | [46] |
 Exo | 40–80 nm | Pellet from 100,000×g centrifugation, or 100,000×g sucrose cushion | iRBC | In vivo | P. yoelii | iRBC release exosomes with parasite antigens; exosomes can be used to immunize naïve mice. | [47] |