Characteristic | No. of children with malaria infection (%) | Univariate | Model 1 (Child model)a | Model 2 (Caretaker & household head model)a | Model 3 (Household model)a | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95 CI | p | aOR | 95 CI | p | aOR | 95 CI | p | aOR | 95 CI | p | ||
Child’s characteristics | |||||||||||||
Age | 0.17 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 0.21 | |||||||||
10–16 months | 87/302 (28.8) | Ref | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
17–23 months | 133/383 (34.7) | 0.76 | 0.50, 1.14 | 0.74 | 0.49, 1.11 | 0.76 | 0.48, 1.21 | 0.76 | 0.49, 1.18 | ||||
Sleeping under a bed net the night before | 0.19 | 0.25 | |||||||||||
Yes | 168/541 (31.1) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
No | 52/144 (36.1) | 1.27 | 0.88, 1.83 | 1.24 | 0.85, 1.81 | ||||||||
Immunization status | 0.26 | 0.93 | |||||||||||
Fully immunized | 117/403 (29.0) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Partially immunized | 66/187 (35.3) | 1.51 | 0.80, 2.85 | 1.14 | 0.47, 2.73 | ||||||||
Not immunized | 37/95 (38.9) | 1.33 | 0.85, 2.10 | 1.12 | 0.59, 2.13 | ||||||||
Vitamin A uptake | 0.11 | 0.50 | |||||||||||
Yes | 122/421 (29.0) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
No | 98/264 (37.1) | 1.43 | 0.91, 2.25 | 1.29 | 0.61, 2.73 | ||||||||
Caretaker’s characteristics | |||||||||||||
Age | 0.67 | 0.49 | |||||||||||
< 27 years | 94/300 (31.3) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
\(\ge\) 27 years | 126/385 (32.7) | 1.08 | 0.75, 1.54 | 0.88 | 0.60, 1.29 | ||||||||
Marital status | 0.99 | 0.10 | |||||||||||
Married/in union | 210/654 (32.1) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
No partner | 10/31 (32.3) | 1.01 | 0.44, 2.31 | 0.49 | 0.20, 1.18 | ||||||||
Educational level | 0.024 | 0.49 | |||||||||||
Secondary or above | 31/135 (23.0) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Primary | 84/261 (32.2) | 1.57 | 1.01, 2.44 | 0.92 | 0.46, 1.83 | ||||||||
No formal education | 105/288 (36.3) | 1.95 | 1.19, 3.18 | 1.32 | 0.46, 1.83 | ||||||||
Source of income | 0.48 | 0.39 | |||||||||||
Formally-employed | 12/32 (37.5) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Self-employed | 190/608 (31.2) | 0.81 | 0.43, 1.52 | 0.76 | 0.32, 1.80 | ||||||||
No income | 18/45 (40.0) | 1.18 | 0.49, 2.83 | 1.24 | 0.47, 3.26 | ||||||||
Literacy | 0.092 | 0.20 | |||||||||||
Fully literate | 33/143 (23.1) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Partially literate | 67/189(35.4) | 1.81 | 1.03, 3.18 | 1.43 | 0.68, 3.01 | ||||||||
Illiterate | 120/353 (34.0) | 1.73 | 1.00, 3.01 | 0.91 | 0.38, 2.18 | ||||||||
Religion | < 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.001 | ||||||||||
Christian | 115/409 (28.1) | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||
Animist | 89/211 (42.2) | 1.91 | 1.33, 2.73 | 1.72 | 1.15, 2.56 | 1.71 | 1.19, 2.46 | ||||||
Other | 16/65(24.6) | 0.86 | 0.50, 1.48 | 0.82 | 0.42, 1.62 | 0.75 | 0.41, 1.37 | ||||||
Ethnic group | 0.13 | 0.064 | |||||||||||
Ewe | 47/151 (31.1) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Adja | 85/241 (35.3) | 1.21 | 0.71, 2.08 | 0.96 | 0.53, 1.73 | ||||||||
Kabve | 40/149 (26.8) | 0.84 | 0.44, 1.60 | 0.75 | 0.38, 1.50 | ||||||||
Lamba | 24/55 (43.6) | 1.73 | 0.90, 3.33 | 1.88 | 0.92, 3.84 | ||||||||
Other/unknown | 24/89 (27.0) | 0.81 | 0.42, 1.56 | 0.79 | 0.38, 1.65 | ||||||||
Possession of child’s EPI card | 0.62 | 0.65 | |||||||||||
Yes | 124/399 (31.1) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
No | 96/286 (33.6) | 1.10 | 0.76, 1.59 | 0.91 | 0.60, 1.38 | ||||||||
Household head’s characteristics | |||||||||||||
Relationship with the child | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||||||||||
Father | 160/529 (30.2) | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||
Mother | 43/83 (51.8) | 2.47 | 1.50, 4.07 | 2.51 | 1.39, 4.56 | 2.39 | 1.43, 3.99 | ||||||
Another family member | 17/73 (23.3) | 0.68 | 0.40, 1.15 | 0.58 | 0.34, 0.99 | 0.63 | 0.37, 1.06 | ||||||
Educational level | < 0.001 | 0.18 | |||||||||||
Secondary or above | 39/183 (21.3) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Primary | 84/239 (35.1) | 2.04 | 1.32, 3.15 | 1.60 | 0.93, 2.74 | ||||||||
No formal education | 97/263 (36.9) | 2.17 | 1.36, 3.46 | 1.57 | 0.84, 2.93 | ||||||||
Source of income | 0.014 | 0.43 | |||||||||||
Formal employment | 6/37 (16.2) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
Self-employed | 192/600 (32.0) | 2.73 | 1.04, 7.14 | 1.85 | 0.71, 4.83 | ||||||||
No income | 22/48 (45.8) | 4.85 | 1.62, 14.6 | 1.76 | 0.49, 6.30 | ||||||||
Household’s characteristics | |||||||||||||
Number of U5 living in the household | 0.038 | 0.040 | |||||||||||
1 | 124/427 (29.0) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
≥ 2 | 96/258 (37.2) | 1.46 | 1.01, 2.11 | 1.44 | 1.01, 2.07 | ||||||||
Distance from the village to the nearest health facility | 0.008 | 0.027 | |||||||||||
< 5 km | 77/301 (25.6) | – | – | – | – | ||||||||
≥ 5 km | 143/384 (37.2) | 1.75 | 1.15, 2.66 | 1.60 | 1.04, 2.44 |