Fig. 1

DRC P. vivax falls within African variation in global species context. DRC sample indicated by arrowhead in each panel. A Principal components analysis of global genetic diversity reveals P. vivax from the DRC grouped with African and South Asian populations. The first principal component explains 14.3% of variation in the data and the second principal component represents 10.3% of variation. B Maximum Likelihood tree shows P. vivax from the DRC clusters with Uganda and Madagascar. Tree constructed using whole-genome SNP data and rooted using two P. vivax-like sequences (red dotted line). Continent colours: Americas (green), Africa (blue), South Asia (pink), East Asia (red), Southeast Asia (brown). Tree constructed using IQtree with the GTR + ASC model to account for ascertainment bias in SNP data. Population-level SH-aLRT and UFBoot support values generated by IQTree are shown on the node in the format: SH-aLRT support (%)/ultrafast bootstrap support (%). C Admixture analysis of global population structure indicates P. vivax ancestry is geographically structured. Each vertical bar represents the proportion of genetic ancestry belonging to one individual P. vivax sample for each simulated population size (K). Population size K = 14 is most-supported by Cross Validation Error. D F4 statistics calculated using Admixtools2 using the relationship (P. vivax-like, DRC; Papua New Guinea (PNG), test). Higher F4 estimates indicate DRC has a closer relationship with the test population than it does to the PNG population. Error bars indicate ± 3 SE